The archaeological evidence indicates the Deep Gorge area seems to have remained an autonomous area with no changes in the rock art motifs or evidence of superimposition of art sequences over time (see below). This gorge is located approximately between that geological feature designated as the beehive area and the conglomerate area lying north of Deep Gorge. The archaeological evidence indicates this area may have been a cultural or linguistic 'boundary' at one time for Aboriginal groups exploiting the Bungle Bungles. Desert influence is evident in the style of the painted motifs found in this gorge.

Deep Gorge is the only gorge throughout the Bungle massif where the author has recorded sufficient archaeological evidence to indicate Aborigines ventured well into the depths of a gorge. Deep gorge however, is unusual for its openness and easy accessibility. The main rock art sites are located approx. 1.4 kilometres into the gorge. An archaeological survey beyond the recorded rock art sites failed to locate any further archaeological evidence of Aboriginal activity.

The three sites located within the Deep Gorge area appear to be ritual/ceremonial in nature (personal observation see fig 4). There is no archaeological evidence of lithic material or other signs of Aboriginal group of hunting activities. Ochre grinding hollows still retain ochre staining. An ochre stained grinding stone is also still in place in one of the sites. Apart from two sites suggesting group activity and located at the entrance to the gorge, there is no other evidence of rock art or other archaeological indicators of Aboriginal activity through the gorge until the three 'ceremonial' sites are reached. The very location and the unusual symbolic red ochre infill motifs indicate these sites were probably 'ritual' or ceremonial. The rock art images are now only represented as ochre staining on the rock

Fig 4.Deep Gorge ceremonial motif.

General Conclusions for the Deep Gorge Area.

1. The archaeological evidence suggest that Deep Gorge was probably a 'ritual' or ceremonial area. The archaeological evidence also indicates that Deep Gorge may have been a 'demarcation' or cultural (linguistic) boundary at some period of time between Aboriginal groups utilising the Bungles resources. 2. The preservation status of these very protected red ochre infill images indicate the sites are very old and probably pre-date European contact.

Fig 5.Deep Gorge motif.

3. The North-West Area.

3a. Post Contact use of the Bungles

The northern end of the massif indicates strong archaeological evidence of continued activity well after European contact. This evidence appears to be restricted primarily to a small area located along the north western face of the massif, north of Deep Gorge, and east of the former

Fig 6.Donkey in white ochre.

Bungle Bungle Outstation.

Aboriginal stockmen and their families also used the limestone outcrop situated near the outstation for rock painting and other cultural activities. The rock art, metal and glass artifacts and other items embody both station life for Aboriginal people and the semi-traditional lifestyle they continued to lead during the wet seasons when mustering was completed.

Fig 7. Stockmen shaking hands.

Fig 8.Engraved car motif.

The main rock art site's associated with the station phase appear to be restricted to four main sites, three of which are located along the western face of the massif, with the remaining one located in the limestone outcrop. Rock art themes and motifs are focussed around station activities. Several engraved vehicle motifs relating to the 1930's/40's era of vehicle types, stockman like anthropomorphic figures, (one shaking hands with another) and pack animals such as donkeys and horses all make up the rock art images relating to Aboriginal pastoral station activity (see figs.6, 7 & 8).

Fig 9. Doll stencil

The engraved images frequently have letters carved into the rock face, possibly signifying the names of the Aboriginal artists. (see fig 9.) The application or technique of 'engraving' rather than painting again appears to have been influenced by the desert technique of rock art.

Tobacco tins, leather fragments, general tools of trade for the stockman and the presence of 'butchered' cattle bones etc all signify continued Aboriginal activity in this section of the Bungles, immediately adjacent to the outstation.

Fig 10 Engraved vehicle motif.

3b. Pre-European use

The archaeological evidence for this area indicates the north western face of the massif and adjacent areas west to the Bellburn Creek area has always been a significant area for Aboriginal groups utilising the Bungles resources. The author has determined however, that there appears to be a gap in the archaeological information suggesting Aboriginal people may have stopped using this immediate area of the Bungles for a time prior to the Bungle outstation functioning in the 1920's.

The fine carefully applied stark white ochre outline animal and spiritual figures, often overlying each other, is common in the sites located along the north western face of the Bungles massif (see fig 11). The author has determined that this phase of rock art appears to belong to a pre European period of time.

Fig 11.Finely painted white ochre outlined motifs.

The application of heavy off white ochre infilled spiritual figures and other motifs usually found overlying the fine white ochre outlined motifs has not been recorded by the author in this area of the Bungles (see fig 12)

There are also a number of sites around the area adjacent the Bungle Bungle Station which show abraded, pecked and ground engravings of animal forms, spiritual figures and other engraved motifs (see figure 13). The style and technique again indicates there is a strong desert influence in the Bungle area in general and that this influence has continued over thousands of years. This technique of pecking images such as the ones recorded in the Bungles can be found as far as the Pilbara desert areas.

Fig 12 heavy white ochre infill motif.

There is little indication of a build-up of desert varnish, but this indicator alone does not always suggest a great age of antiquity. These figures, however are superimposed over the red ochre infill motifs, indicating a later phase of rock art. There is no way at present of determining just how old these superb engraved motifs are.

Up to six superimposed art sequences have been identified by the author in the rock art sites recorded in the north western area of the Bungles. These rock art sites signify a continuity of use by Aboriginal people over thousands of years. The archaeological evidence also indicates the area changed in perception of use over time by the Aboriginal people using the resources of the area, with possibly some overlapping of various cultural groups. This is mainly perceived in the strong desert influence that appears in some of the sequences of superimposed layers of painted and engraved rock art images.

Fig 13. Engraved motif.

General Conclusions for the North-West area of the Bungle Bungles.

1. The archaeological evidence indicates only a handful of sites in this area, and in the Bungles in general, continued to be used by Aboriginal people after European contact.

2. The technique of engraving the vehicle images or motifs show a desert influence, indicating the Aboriginal stockmen responsible for this rock art probably originate from the desert area.

Fig 13a Engraved and pecked figures.

3. The abraded and pecked anthropomorphic figures are unusual in that they are primarily associated with the north western area of the Bungles. These motifs suggest that desert influenced cultural activities continued for thousands of years in the Bungle area. 4. The many superimposed layers of rock art and changing techniques and art imagery indicate a dynamic changing cultural perspective and use by Aboriginal people of this specific area of the Bungles over thousands of years.

In brief the archaeological evidence suggests that the north eastern area of the Bungles may have experienced many different cultural groups over thousands of years. There is also some evidence of an overlapping of cultural groups sharing the resources at the same time, and that at times the area changed dramatically in the perception of its use by Aboriginal people. Desert influence in the cultural activities over thousands of years through to well after post European contact can be observed in the rock art.

There is also some indication that there may have been a short period when Aboriginal people were no longer using this area, however the importance of this area to Aboriginal people is shown in the way it was used while the Bungle Bungle outstation functioned. This strong cultural connection to the Bungle Bungles has been shown in more recent years, with various Aboriginal people re-establishing their ancestral and pastoral links to the area.

4. Red Rock and Buchanan Creek Areas.

Whilst this area has been designated as an archaeological 'whole' there is some variation in the rock art from the Red Rock Creek area to the stylistic variations recorded in the Buchanan Creek system. The author has not however, been able to interpret whether this change indicates a different use of each area by the same cultural group, or whether the sites actually represent quite different periods or overlapping of use by different Aboriginal groups.

Fig 14.'Constellation' figures.

The percentage of site's recorded in this general area is quite low in comparison to the number of sites located on the western face of the massif and in the beehive area. In general the sites recorded appear to indicate ceremonial purposes for Aboriginal groups rather than living areas. Two major engraved and cupule 'increase' ceremonial sites were recorded in the Bellburn Creek system. White ochre stick like figures found in the Buchanan Creek system are unlike any other anthropomorphic figures recorded elsewhere in the Bungles. It has been suggested they may represent star constellations because of their star like configurations (Cairns: pers.com. see fig 14). They appear to overlay very faded red ochre motifs, suggesting this particular site certainly changed in Aboriginal perception of use for the area.

In general all the red ochre motifs, including two large crocodile images (see fig 15) are very faded and are little more than ochre stains on the rock surface, indicating great antiquity. Many of the red ochre infill images are unique to this immediate area in their stylistic variations.

General Conclusions for the Red Rock and Buchanan Creek areas of the Bungles.

The stylistic variation in motifs and other images, and the presence of 'ceremonial' 'increase' cupule sites suggest Aboriginal perception of use of this area was different to that experienced in other areas of the Bungles. The archaeological evidence also indicates this area was being used by a different Aboriginal group or groups to those using either the north western area or the beehives. The presence of the cupules in this area provide some evidence of desert influence at some stage in the history of Aboriginal use of this area.

Fig 15.Red ochre infill crocodile motifs.

In brief this area requires a great deal more archaeological fieldwork before any real conclusions can be based on the evidence at hand. At present the archaeological information suggests this area was used differently by Aboriginal people to other areas of the Bungles. It may also have been used by Aboriginal groups coming in from elsewhere and only using this area of the Bungles. The only evidence of any overlapping of Aboriginal groups is the presence of the engraved and cupule sites indicating desert influence at some time.

5. The eastern area of the Bungles.

The eastern area of the Bungles massif, from its southern tip to the northern most point indicated no apparent visible evidence of Aboriginal activity. These conclusions may well represent the incomplete archaeological survey undertaken.

Conclusions drawn from the incomplete archaeological evidence indicates that the eastern area of the Bungles was certainly not used by Aboriginal people in the same way as other sections of the Bungle Bungle Range. The lack of permanent water and the inhospitable nature of the terrain suggest that this area would be an unlikely choice for family or hunting groups. In whatever way this area may have been used by Aboriginal people it is not easily discernible in the archaeological record at present.

General Conclusions for the Eastern side of the Bungles.

1. The archaeological evidence at present indicates that the eastern area of the Bungles massif was probably not used by Aboriginal family or hunting groups. If it was used at all the archaeological evidence is not easily discernible.

2. That further archaeological fieldwork is required before any definitive statement on Aboriginal use of the area can be made.

6. The Top of the Bungles Massif.

The top of the Bungles Massif also lacks archaeological evidence of Aboriginal activity over the area. Water and food resources are difficult to find on top of the Massif, and the problems in accessing what is available suggests that Aboriginal activity on top of the massif would always have been minimal. Whatever Aboriginal activity might have taken place has left no archaeological evidence behind.

General Conclusions for the top of the massif.

1. The archaeological evidence at present indicates that the top of the Bungles massif was not used by Aboriginal groups.

2. Further archaeological fieldwork is required before any definitive statements can be made on Aboriginal use of this area.

7. The Limestone Reef and Cambrian sandstone Ridge.

The limestone ridge located along the western perimeter of the Bungles massif, and running from south to north, intersects the Bellburn Creek system in several locations. There are a number of permanent water holes to be found along this creek system. It is in and around these permanent water holes, and up against the limestone ridge, that large open camping sites, rock art and caches can be found. The only area that suggests some of these open camping sites continued to be used well after contact are those found in and around the limestone reef immediately adjacent to the former Bungle outstation. These sites contain glass and tin artefacts, with many of the glass points and blades showing fine pressure flaking. No glass tools were located in the large open sites found further to the south of this area, indicating that only this immediate area adjacent to the old Bungle outstation continued to be used after European contact.

The stone tools recorded from the open camp sites represent the small stone tool tradition which developed sometime around 5,000 years ago (Kohen:1999). This indicates that use of open camp sites by Aboriginal people along Bellburn Creek commenced sometime after 5,000 years. Excavation may reveal evidence of earlier use of open camp sites by Aboriginal people in the Bungles Bungles.

The rock art along this limestone ridge is essentially focussed near the Bungle outcamp. One exception is a site approximately 10 kilometres further south. The rock art theme is centred around the pastoral phase with only a single faded example of an earlier phase of rock art painting. This appears to belong to the red ochre infill period.

The Cambrian ridge runs along the western face of the Bungles massif, and is most dominant in the northern area. The archaeological survey failed to reveal any rock art sites. Several caches, however were located, and all had been used to 'hide' or place special items such as stone tools and cultural artifacts. The narrow openings found along this ridge line made ideal 'safe' places for 'special' personal items.

The nature, content and preservation status of the various cultural items suggest many of these items have been there for a long time. Interruption and displacement of Aboriginal culture meant whomever these items had belonged to did not return. The author has noted a similar situation with 'cached' material in other parts of the Kimberley.

General Conclusions for Bellburn Creek and the Limestone Ridge.

1. The archaeological evidence suggests that Aboriginal use of the limestone reef and Bellburn Creek system as open camping areas did not develop until around 5,000 years ago.

2. The rock art motifs recorded relate predominantly to the pastoral era with only one exception which appears to belong to the red ochre infill period.

3. The Cambrian Ridge, with its many horizontal 'splits' in the rock strata appears to have been used only as an area by Aboriginal people to secure items relating to hunting activities.

Which areas did Early Aborigines Use?

The early cultural material left behind suggests that people concentrated on areas primarily along the western face of the Bungle massif. The archaeological evidence points to this side of the Bungles as being the primary focus for all types of activities. The western face of many of the rock or beehive projections found to the north and south of the massif also show evidence of Aboriginal activity. The eastern side, and the top of the massif, on the other hand, show no obvious physical evidence of early occupation or use.

The lack of archaeological evidence on the top of the massif and along the eastern face of the Bungle Bungles is not conclusive, and more survey work needs to be carried out. However, the apparent lack of evidence of human activity, and the richness and very visible evidence of cultural archaeological material found around the western face and surrounding area, does suggest early Aboriginal people were more focussed on the richer biodiversity of the western side of the Bungles. A further deterrent to early human use of the eastern side was almost certainly the lack of water with the associated lower biodiversity and difficult living conditions. Environmental evidence suggests this was probably the scenario for several thousand years. The top of the massif would have also offered a similar sparse biodiversity and difficult living and hunting conditions.

The western side of the Bungles, on the other hand, consists of several rich and diverse ecosystems, fed by creeks such as Red Rock and Bellburn. Both these creek systems, even today, provide semi permanent and residual waterholes during the dry season, and are rich in biodiversity.

The Frank River, marking the present western boundary into the Bungles National Park, is also a rich and diverse ecosystem, and provided attractive food resources for the family groups travelling through the area. This system, although only surveyed in sections, contains several major open campsites.

The Buchanan Creek and gorge system to the north of the massif and Piccaninny Creek in the south also provide residual waterholes during the dry season Whilst not as rich in archaeological evidence as those areas found along and adjacent to the western face, the archaeological evidence does suggest that Aboriginal people were primarily using those areas of the Bungles which provided readily available food and water resources. The archaeological evidence also suggests the biodiversity of this western side of the Bungles massif was probably greater, and was almost certainly considerably 'wetter' at some stage in the past. The rock art within the Bungles formation indicates species such as the platypus; long necked turtle, and freshwater crocodile were present in these creek systems, none of which appear to be present today.

What time of the year was the Bungles Used?

The evidence from the open camping sites and the abundance of lithic material (stone tools) found around the waterholes tend to suggest that the Bungles were more a dry season hunting area than that of a wet season one. The majority of the overhangs containing rock paintings and showing evidence of being used as a living area were far too shallow to have been much protection during the wet. They seem to have been chosen more for their location to water and other food resources and their exposure to the afternoon sun for warmth. This would have been necessary during the dry season. Equally they would have provided shade during the early morning if needed. Fish, plant food and meat would have been more abundant around the waterholes during the dry, and as such, easier to obtain than at any other time of the year. This is not to suggest it was never used during the wet, but the archaeological evidence suggests a preference for dry season use.

Post contact sites in the northern section of the western face of the massif may very well have been used during the wet season when Aboriginal stockman and their families were not required for work. The assumption rests with the knowledge that cattle mustering is done during the dry, leaving Aboriginal families to undertake cultural ceremony and other activities in their traditional areas during the wet.

Did Aboriginal People exploit the Gorges?

There is very little archaeological evidence of human use of the gorge systems of the massif. Where there is archaeological evidence of human activity within a gorge, it is confined to those areas within a gorge system which are fairly open, and with quick access to the outside surrounding area of the massif. Even where a gorge might have permanent or semi-permanent water at its junction, no archaeological evidence is found once the gorge begins to close in. Generally, however, most gorges did not retain water during the dry, and food resources would have been limited, so the gorges were not an attractive hunting or gathering proposition.

Based on the present archaeological evidence, there appears to have been very limited use of the gorge systems of the Bungles. Whether this was for practical or spiritual reasons, is difficult to assess based on the archaeological evidence alone.

When did Aboriginal People stop using the Bungles in a traditional way?

The archaeological evidence found in the Beehive area, indicates that there may have been a change in use and status just prior to, or around the time of European occupation of the area. It appears to have changed from an area used by family groups carrying out everyday hunting and gathering activities, to an area of 'spiritual or mythological' significance. Whatever the change and reason, the archaeological evidence indicates traditional use of the beehive area by Aboriginal People as having ceased quite soon after the surrounding pastoral stations were established.

Similarly, the archaeological evidence also suggests that the Buchanan and Redrock Creek area and a large part of the western face of the Bungles ceased to be used by Aboriginal people quite soon after European settlement of the region. The exception to this evidence is a small number of sites located adjacent to the old Bungle Outstation. Here, the change in art theme, and their state of preservation, suggests Aboriginal stockman and their families, employed by the station, continued to utilise the area, probably until around the 1950's. This evidence is based on the date range for some of the artifacts and the style and range of engraved vehicle images. There is no archaeological evidence to suggest use after the 1950's.

Interestingly, many of the pastoral influenced rock art themes associated with continued use of this immediate area by Aboriginal stockmen and their families, are engraved and pecked motifs indicating continued desert influence. These sites are a remarkable and physical reminder of the powerful influence the pastoral industry had on the Australian Aborigines and their lifestyle.

Summary.

In summarising the archaeological evidence a number of points can be made.

1. That the Bungle Bungles were shared by more than one cultural or language group. The evidence suggests that at least three cultural groups may have utilised the area at any given time.

2. That Deep Gorge may have been a boundary between those Aboriginal groups using the northern areas of the Bungle Massif and those using the Beehive area.

3. That the Bungle Bungle area was used by Aboriginal extensively over time, with a change in the way many of the sites were used by cultural groups over time. There is also some apparent overlapping of use by the various cultural groups over time.

4. That Aboriginal people have probably used the area for many thousands of years. However, if the date from the Ord River is taken into consideration, it is possible that occupation began 18,000 years ago or more.

5. That those language groups sharing the resources of the Bungle Bungles primarily utilised the western face of the massif and surrounding area, and to a lesser extent, the northern and southern sections.

6. That those language groups utilising the Bungle Bungle resources either did not, or very rarely, ventured onto the top of the massif, or used the eastern area of the massif.

7. That the Bungle Bungles were used primarily during the dry season, with limited wet season use. Evidence of wet season use appears to be focussed only on a handful of sites closely related to the pastoral era associated with the first half of the twentieth century.

8. That Aboriginal People rarely ventured into the gorges, and when they did only into those gorges which were more open and provided easy access and retreat. Deep Gorge appears to be the exception.

9. That various areas of the Bungle Bungles being used by different cultural groups changed in use and status over time

10. That the language groups using the Bungle Bungles and adjacent area ceased traditional use of the area around the time of European impact. Continued use after European influence is evident in only a handful of sites found immediately adjacent to the old Bungle Bungle Outstation.

11. That some areas of the Bungles show strong desert influence in some of the stylistic variations found in many of the panels of rock art, and that this desert influence is evident in the pastoral station influenced rock art located in several sites immediately adjacent to the Bungle Bungle Outstation.

12. That at one time the Bungle may have experienced 'wetter' climate conditions with permanent creek systems running from and into the Ord.

References,

Dortch, C & Roberts, R. 1997 An evaluation of radiocarbon chronologies at Miriwun rock shelter and the Monmont site, Ord valley, east Kimberley, Western Australia. Australian Archaeology. No.42

Scott-Virtue, E. .1998. A Spatial Interpretation of the Archaeological evidence found within the Bungle Bungle National Park. A working draft. Unpublished.

Scott-Virtue, E. 1998. A field Report on the Archaeology of the Bungle Bungles from 1983-1999. Unpublished.

Scott-Virtue. E. & Kohen. J. 2000. An Archaeological Overview of the Bungle Bungles. In Press.

White, Janelle. 2001. Jaru Oral History Project Report. Unpublished. Copy held by Mindi Mindi Corporation.